Learning Theory: Constructivism Borich and Tombari (2004) describe “constructivism as an approach to learning in which learners are provided with the opportunity to construct their own sense of what is being learned by building internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts being taught” (p.7). Moreover, Merriam and Bierema (2014) stated that “constructivism is a collection of perspectives which share the common assumption that learning is how people make sense of their experience” (p. 36). Based on this definition, learning is the construction of meaning from experience (Merrian & Bierema, 2014). Therefore, personal experience cannot be separated from knowledge. Dougiamas (1998) introduced four major faces of constructivism which are cognitive constructivism, radical constructivism, cultural constructivism, and social constructivism. The principle of cognitive constructivism is considered as the root of constructivism. Jean Piaget introduced this principle and called it “personal constructivism” (Dougiamas, 1998). Cognitive constructivism indicates that individuals can use their personal experience and research-based data to develop their own models of reality (Whitman, 1993). In contrast to the traditional learning model where knowledge is simply transmitted from a more knowledgeable person to others, cognitive constructivism suggests that “knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment (Merrian & Bierema, 2014). Prior knowledge plays a significant role in actively constructing knowledge. It helps learners to think and explain their reasoning. Therefore, promoting student independence, active learning and encouraging students to conduct research to explore and solve problems are key elements of cognitive constructivism ( Whitman, 1993).Based on cognitive constructivist framework, e-learning activities like asynchronous learning activities (e.g., e-folios, online team, and whole group discussions) can improve individual cognition and motivation. Asynchronous technologies support learning and provide an opportunity for learners without the pressure to think, analyze, relate and process information with their prior experiences and knowledge to create a new knowledge. From the point of view of radical constructivism, “coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation towards viable interpretations of experience. The knower does not necessarily construct knowledge of a "real" world. Knowledge is therefore result of a self-organized cognitive process” (von Glasersfeld, 1996, cited in Tuncer, 2009, P.62). Radical constructivism emphasizes on the individual learner as a constructor. Individual self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction are key elements in radical constructivism (Tuncer, 2009). Online learning is supported by radical constructivism. It emphasizes on learner - centered learning. In line with this idea, Boettcher and Conrad (2010) reported that learners are more active in online courses than traditional classes. “They do more thinking, writing, sharing, reflecting, and peer reviewing as part of a community of learners. They have control over the content, learning sequence, pace of learning, time, and, often, media, which allows them to tailor their experience to meet personal learning objectives” (Boettcher & Conrad, 2010, P.7). Another type of constructivism is cultural constructivism. According to this theory, “knowledge is created in the crucible of culture” (Hutchison, 2006). In other words, cultural factors such as custom, religion, tools and language can influence students learning. Cultural variations may have an impact on the contents that teachers teach, their teaching strategies and students learning. Based on cultural constructivism theory, online instructors should embrace the diversity of their students. They need to understand and appreciate the learners’ needs, backgrounds, interests, and learning styles (Brookfield, 2006). They should understand their students through the lens of the culture and history which they actually raised in order to be effective in guiding students and enhancing their critical-thinking skills. To enhance students learning in an online learning environment, instructors should learn more about their students and how they are experiencing their learning and perceiving their teaching. They can use various exercises, such as Critical Incident Questionnaire to obtain valuable information concerning their students learning and to find out how their students are experiencing their learning and their teaching. This information helps them develop exercises to engage students, encourage them to take on responsibility for their learning, and see themselves as co-creators of knowledge. According to Tuncer (2009), constructivism provides a situation for learner to learn out of existing knowledge by socio-collaboration interactions. In fact, social constructivism emphasizes on the impact of society on the development of an individual (Tuncer, 2009). Based on this theory, knowledge is a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Tuncer, 2009). Individuals learn through collaboration, participation, and interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. The development of the technologies and the internet has advanced the social constructivism. Dalsgaard (2006) found the relationship between social constructivism and Web 2.0 technologies. He argued that Web 2.0 technologies engage students and promote collaborative learning through problem solving. Moreover, Bowen (2012) stated that “social networks are a chance to create communities, connect with students, integrate ideas, apply knowledge, influence student culture and improve student learning” (P.30). In fact, social-networking sites (such as Facebook, Twitter, Blog), which provide platforms for users to communicate and to connect with each other, enable learners to link new information to old; acquire meaningful knowledge, and use their metacognitive abilities (Bowen, 2012). Nowadays, most students have accounts at more than one social networking websites. They use, for example, Facebook in order to get instant communication and connection with their friends. They can share their personal stories, in words, pictures, and videos with their friends. They can interact, communicate with each other and extend their learning. Based on above discussion, it can be concluded that collaborative and cooperative learning which facilitate constructivist learning should be used in an online learning environment. Why this Theory According to Crotty (1997), constructivism is one of the best learning theories that can improve learning. Despite other learning theories such as objectivism that only emphasizes on the learning content, constructivism is less content-oriented and more learner-centered. It emphasizes on a learner as an active constructor of meaning and knowledge. In other words, constructivism suggests that new meanings and understanding is created when the learner is actively involved in collaborative activities (Merrian & Bierema, 2014). Constructivism considers knowledge construction instead of transmission of information to the learner. Many scholars believe that constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking and creates motivated and independent learners (e.g., Adams & Seagren, 2004). Moreover, Vérillon (2000) stated that constructivism can increase students’ retention, satisfaction, high level of thinking skills and positive attitudes toward hands-on courses. Nowadays, people need a range of abilities in professional work. Employers expect that their employees possess not only a good command of relevant knowledge but also ability to use knowledge and have a series of soft skills such as communication, cooperation, teamwork, and time management. Therefore, learning and teaching based on constructivism can create learners who are autonomous, independent, and have critical and creative thinking skills. These are important skills that students should have in order to succeed in their future career life. Role of the Learner A constructivist learning environment is learner-centered. John Dewey, Piaget, Papert, Vygotsky and Bruner who are founders of constructivism learning theory believe that constructivism stimulates students’ interest to learn independently and it is the main reason of the change in the role of students from passive learner to active learner (Merrian & Bierema, 2014). Constructivism focuses on students learning than on teachers teaching (Vérillon, 2000). It emphasizes on ownership of the learning process by learners, experiential learning and a problem-solving approach to learning (Vérillon, 2000). In line with this idea, Koohang et al. (2009) conducted a study on e-Learning and constructivism and found that learners are more active in online courses than traditional classes. “They do more thinking, writing, sharing, reflecting, and peer reviewing as part of a community of learners. They have control over the content, learning sequence, pace of learning, time, and, often, media, which allows them to tailor their experience to meet personal learning objectives” (Boettcher & Conrad, 2010, P.7). Based on constructivism learning theory, students, therefore, are one of the critical factors in the success of the online education. Online learners should be highly autonomous, self-directed, motivated and individually different (Brookfield, 2006). They should know what they want to learn, set their objectives, find resources and evaluate their learning progress to meet their goals. Role of the Instructor Based on constructivism, the instructor is assumed as a facilitator, co-explorer who encourages students to rise up questions, challenges students’ idea and formulates it to get the conclusion (Dougiamas, 1998). The teacher must become more of a personal tutor, as opposed to delivering content to all students. Instructors in constructivist approaches still have a responsibility to monitor and warrant the quality of learning and peer discussions (Whitman, 1993). It is necessary for instructors to provide sufficient support, directions and guidance for their learners. Similarly, Boettcher and Conrad (2010) stated that a teacher’ role in online courses changes from information giver to facilitator, counsellor, advisor, guide, coach, co-learner, mentor, resource and technology managers. In this way, students have an opportunity to interact with one another, actively engage with the content resources to construct their knowledge and learn deeply. It is clear that when students construct their own understanding of scientific ideas within the framework of their existing knowledge, they learn deeply. References Adams, J. C., & Seagren, A. T. (2004). Distance education strategy: Mental models and strategic choice. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 7(2), 1-14. Borich, G.D., & Tombari, M.L. (2004). Educational assessment for the elementary and middle school classroom. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Boettcher, J.V., & Conrad, R. (2010). The online teaching survival guide: Simple and practical pedagogical tips. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Brookfield, S. D. (2006). The skillful teacher: On trust, technique and responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bowen,J. A. ( 2012). Teaching naked: How moving technology out of your college classroom will improve student learning. John Wiley & Sons. Crotty, T. (1997). Constructivist theory unites distance learning and teacher education. Education at a Distance, 9(4),12-16. Dalsgaard, C. (2006). Social software: E-learning beyond learning management systems. European Journal of Open, Distance and E- Learning. Dougiamas, M. (1998). A journey into Constructivism. Retrieved May 5, 2016, from http://dougiamas.com/writing/constructivism.html Hutchinson, C. B. (2006). Cultural constructivism: The confluence of cognition, knowledge creation, multiculturalism, and teaching. Intercultural Education, 17(3), 301-310. Koohang, A., Riley, L., Smith, T., & Schreurs, J. (2009). E-learning and constructivism: from theory to application. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 5, 91–109. Merriam, S., & Bierema, L. (2014). The spirit in learning. In Adult Learning Linking Theory and Practice (pp. 197-206). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tuncer, C. (2009). Learning and Teaching Language Online: A Constructivist Approach. Novita’s-ROYAL, 3(1), 60-74. Vérillon, P. (2000). Revisiting Piaget and Vigotsky: in search of a learning model for technology education. The Journal of Technology Studies, 26(1), 3-10. Whitman N. (1993). A review of constructivism: Understanding and using a relatively new theory. Fam Med, 25, 517–521.
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What is e-learning?
E-learning is an attractive learning process that can motivate students to learn deeply. In my mind, online learning can have significant impacts on educational environments. E-learning provides students with an anytime/any place independent learning environment. Although this method can be a convenient and efficient way for delivering the educational contents, the success of using e-learning for teaching and learning depends on learners and instructors. I believe that newer ways to blend traditional instruction with technology mediated instructional methods can be more effective in improving students’ learning. According to Adams & Seagren (2004), the use of e-learning in educational institutions has changed the way learners learn, lecturers teach, and administrators manage. E-learning can enhance teaching and learning quality, and offer more flexibility in student learning (Adams & Seagren, 2004). This method of teaching and learning provides the learner more autonomy. It means that the learner is more in charge of their own learning. In spite of the many advantages of online instruction, online learning also has several drawbacks such as limited capability to engage learners in learning events and the lack of a sense of belonging or community during online learning that prevents the development of shared feelings and emotions between learners and instructors (Oh & Lim, 2005). If online courses cannot satisfy students’ needs, it is likely that students withdraw from the course. According to Willging and Johnson (2004), “it is estimated that dropout rates for distance education are higher than those for on-campus programs and courses” (p. 106). In line with this idea, Frankola (2001) pointed out that “although there is significant variation among institutions … several administrators concur that course-completion rates are often 10 to 20 percentage points higher in traditional courses than in distance offerings” (p. 2). Therefore, blended instruction can be a solution to overcome the shortcomings of online instruction. In line with this idea, Walker and Jorn (2009, cited in Bowen,2012) found that students want not only face to face instruction but also online instruction to promote their motivation for learning achievement. Hence, this method of teaching can help instructors utilize various instructional strategies to enhance students’ learning. References Adams, J. C., & Seagren, A. T. (2004). Distance education strategy: Mental models and strategic choices. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 7(2). Bowen,J. A. ( 2012). Teaching naked: How moving technology out of your college classroom will improve student learning. John Wiley & Sons. Frankola, K. (2001). Why online learners drop out. Workforce- Costa Mesa, 80(10), 52-61. Oh, E., & Lim, D.H. (2005). Cross relationships between cognitive styles and learner variables in online learning environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 4(1), 53–66. Willging, P. A., & Johnson, S. D. (2004). Factors that influence students’ decision to drop out of online courses. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(4), 105-118. Watch this interesting TED TALKS. Daphne Koller, one of the founders of Coursera (an online education platform), explains about online learning and advantages of taking online courses. |
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